World Energy Brief : Renewable Energy Benefits Joshua Mosshart

World Energy Brief : Renewable Energy Benefits Joshua Mosshart: The development of renewable energy provides a range of benefits. It can create significant economic and employment opportunities and hel...

Renewable Energy Benefits Joshua Mosshart

The development of renewable energy provides a range of benefits. It can create significant economic and employment opportunities and help secure new investments in a wide range of industries, both at local and national level. 

Renewable energy technologies also provide a unique opportunity to curb carbon emissions without compromising access to energy, which has important implications for slowing climate change. 

Thirdly, developing a country’s national renewable resources will create access to energy that is inexhaustible, thereby reducing a country’s reliance on foreign resources and strengthening its energy security. 

Moreover, whether used on a mass scale to power a city, or on a small scale to run a village mini-grid, renewables bring considerable health benefits by providing clean, safe energy without the negative impacts of fossil fuels.

Beyond these broader benefits, renewable energy is an important catalyst for rural electrification. Many rural communities in the developing world have access to at least one form of sustainable energy, be it strong sunshine for solar, a river for micro-hydro or reliable wind for a wind turbine. 

These resources can be harnessed to provide clean electricity even in communities far from the national grid. This illustrates how, in the coming years, renewable energy has the potential to transform economies throughout the world.

There are important barriers to overcome in the development of renewable energy, however. 

Technical barriers, once a major challen, are being lowered as considerable breakthroughs continue to be made. Renewable energy technologies are swiftly becoming more efficient, cost-effective and accessible. 

Economic barriers relate mainly to the cost of electricity generation and the persistence of subsidies for fossil fuels. Parliamentarians can act on both issues by ensuring that renewable energy development can compete on a level playing field, allowing it to attract the necessary investments to launch large-scale projects. The cost to produce renewable energy has fallen dramatically in recent years thanks to technological breakthroughs and economies of scale, and continues to do so.

The greatest barrier to renewable energy development in many countries is the policy framework that regulates electricity, heating and transport fuel markets. It is common for an electricity market to be operated by a monopoly, often a state-owned utility, which is in full control of generation, distribution and the sale of electricity to consumers. 

This provides very little incentive for the development of alternative technologies. A related challenge is the bureaucracy that must regulate and approve the development of electricity generation (or heating or transport fuel). The development of on-grid renewable energy can be substantially accelerated by ensuring the policy and legal framework is fully coherent and the decision process transparent.

Another barrier is a lack of community support, which may slow the build of renewable energy projects. Even a parliamentarian who is fully committed to the benefits of renewable energy will have those convictions challenged when faced with political opposition from constituents who do not expect to enjoy the benefits of such investments. 

Finally, counter-lobbying remains an issue in many countries. Parliamentarians who decide to push for the adoption of renewable energy policies in their countries will likely encounter significant opposition from fossil fuels interests and their lobbyists.

The building of renewable energy projects involves significant upfront investments. A country will need to make a major investment in generation and transmission infrastructure, the cost of which may run into billions of dollars, if it is to significantly reduce its reliance on energy from non-renewable sources. 

Governments typically turn to three sources of financing to fund renewable energy development: private financing, public financing and consumer financing. In order to build renewable energy capacity on a mass scale, private sector investment is a necessity. 

Historically, private financiers have been hesitant to invest in renewable energy projects because they were seen as high risk, meaning they thought there was a strong likelihood that they might not obtain a return (or profit) from their investment. 

Parliament can help to reduce the risk of such investments by promoting a legal framework that facilitates secure, transparent investments and offers the necessary guarantees to investors. Public financing alone will never be sufficient to ensure that renewable energy is developed on the mass scale required to significantly reduce dependence on fossil fuels. 

If used properly, however, public funds can leverage considerable private investment. 

Finally, consumer financing is an accepted but complex source of financing. As policymakers are directly accountable to consumers, parliamentarians need to find a set of policies that encourage the development of renewable energy while ensuring the burden imposed on the average citizen is minimized.

In addition to securing the required financial investments, building a robust policy framework is an important prerequisite for the successful domestic development of renewable energy. 

Here, too, a wide range of options is available.

Governments can choose to employ some immediate policy changes that allow for swift deliveries (short-term actions) such as setting national targets, simplifying regulations and awarding subsidies. This will serve to send clear signals on the government’s commitment to renewable energy development, which is an important first step in securing investments and building an overarching regulatory framework. 

Some of the most prevalent policy options in place today require a more extensive and therefore time-consuming review of the legal framework (long-term actions) such as feed-in tariffs, quota mechanisms and tenders. These options can be adopted to further strengthen the regulatory framework as the renewable energy sector grows.

The development of renewable energy cannot be achieved without political leadership. 

Parliamentarians have all the levers they need in order to act: they vote on laws, impose taxes and approve state budgets; they oversee the operations of government and have direct access to Ministers, Prime Ministers and Presidents; they can influence national policy, build strong legal frameworks, direct spending in new directions, and establish stronger policies and targets for action on renewable energy. 

In short, the transition to a post-fossil fuels world will benefit considerably from the support of parliamentarians ready to use their political capital for the promotion of renewable energy.

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Source: UNDP

Affordable Renewable Energy Joshua D. Mosshart Joshua Mosshart

Energy is central to sustainable development. It accelerates social progress and enhances productivity. Over the centuries, energy has transformed economies and societies, spurring industrialization and raising living standards – and proving indispensable for fulfilling numerous basic human needs including nutrition, health, education, warmth, cooling and lighting. 

Despite these critical interlinkages, 1.1 billion people remain without access to electricity1and those who continue to rely on wood, coal, charcoal, agriculture residues or animal dung to cook their meals and heat their homes number some 2.9 billion people. 

Progress is slow; meanwhile, the world’s electricity demand will grow by more than 70 percent by 2040.

Affordable and clean energy is a complex goal. Choices around energy resources, with their different production and consumption patterns, impact the climate. Over two thirds of global greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) come from the energy sector alone.  This rise in greenhouse gas emissions is contributing to increased intensity and severity of extreme weather events, affecting vulnerable and poor communities the most. 

Access to energy also directly affects people, communities, cities and countries in terms of economic growth, food production, health, clean water, security, well-being, education, employment and gender equality. In these and other areas, the world faces urgent and complex challenges related to access, sustainability and efficiency of modern energy services. 

Energy crises also have the potential to generate massive economic and political crises, with far-reaching social consequences. Lack of energy solutions in crisis and post-crisis contexts can undermine community and government responses, delaying recovery and undercutting resilience.

Often, energy-related impacts add to the burdens of the poor. Solid fuels and inefficient cooking and heating devices expose households to smoke and fumes causing serious health problems, resulting in more than 4 million premature deaths per annum globally, mostly of women and children.

Moreover, the poor devote a disproportionately large portion of their time to energy- related activities such as gathering fuel wood and water, cooking and agro-processing. This burden falls mainly on women and children, who can spend up to six hours per day on such tasks.

The urban poor in many developing countries, who typically have some access to energy, also face a number of challenges. They often experience irregular electricity supply, frequent blackouts, and quality problems associated with the electrical grid such as low or fluctuating voltage. 

Affordability is another factor, and households may be forced to remain without electricity due to high connection fees and tariffs.  Informal or illegal connections, a common practice in many urban centres, strain the electrical supply and often pose significant safety hazards due to poor wiring and lack of safety devices.

The centrality of energy to economic growth, social progress and environmental sustainability is recognized in the new 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development as Goal 7:

Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.

Progress towards many of the Sustainable Development Goals seeking poverty eradication, better health and education, gender equality, clean water and food security also depend on the achievement of the energy goal. Without sustainable energy, other commitments also will remain unfulfilled, such as addressing climate challenges and stabilizing the global increase in average temperature to well below two degrees Celsius, as called for in the Paris Agreement.

Energy access is defined as reliable and affordable access to clean modern energy carriers and end-use services for households and communities. It is crucial for people’s livelihoods and countries’ economic growth. 

Energy access has many benefits. Households will improve their livelihoods when they have access to sustainable, clean and affordable energy. With continuous access to affordable energy, access to basic public services such as education and health will improve. Small and medium enterprises will be more competitive and with increased productivity can contribute more to job creation and economic growth.

Energy efficiency is key to the transformation of energy and production systems. It is a proven, immediate and cost- effective option that can provide long-term benefits. Energy efficiency is regarded by many as a "first fuel" or source of energy in its own right in which countries can invest ahead of other more complex or costly energy sources.

It offers a unique opportunity to reconcile economic competitiveness with sustainable development by reducing or delaying the need for new energy supplies. It provides the added benefits of reducing greenhouse gas emissions, local air pollution and the cost of energy while increasing energy productivity. 

The IEA estimates that energy efficiency can potentially contribute almost 40 percent of the reductions in energy sector GHG emissions required by 2050 to limit global temperature increase to 2 degrees Celsius or less, if the right enabling policies and investments are in place.

 Efficiency measures can also yield benefits of up to 2.5 times the avoided energy costs and can create up to three times the number of jobs per million dollars of investment compared with investment in fossil fuels.

 Energy efficiency improvements, in particular in residential and public sectors, have proven to deliver a wide range of social, environmental and economic benefits, including energy security, job creation, poverty alleviation, improved health, and GHG emissions reduction.

Renewable energy offers an immediate opportunity to remove carbon from the energy sector to meet climate targets. It also provides viable and cost-effective options for expanding access to the energy poor through decentralized solutions, particularly for those in rural and remote areas. 

It is estimated that 70 percent of the 1.3 billion people without electricity can have access only through decentralized off- grid solutions where renewables provide a more rapid and viable win-win solution. 

This requires the right policies and the impetus of private sector investments. Renewable energy can help reduce dependence on imported fuels and vulnerability to fossil fuel price fluctuations. 

It contributes to improving local air quality and reduces the energy sector’s dependence on water for energy extraction and production, thus reducing conflicts with agriculture and other end-uses while contributing to vital economic activities in the water supply chain such as irrigation, desalination, pumping and heating.

 In addition, investments in renewable energy technologies and supply systems create new economic opportunities generating new jobs. 

Source: UNDP

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Energy Policy & Sustainable Development Joshua Mosshart

Modern forms of energy empower human beings in countless ways: by reducing drudgery, increasing productivity, transforming food, providing illumination, transporting water, fuelling transportation, powering industrial and agricultural processes, cooling or heating rooms, and facilitating electronic communications and computer operations, to name just some of them. 

Given that they can so dramatically increase human capabilities and opportunities, adequate energy services are integral to poverty alleviation and environmentally sound social and economic development.

Conventional sources of and approaches to providing and using energy are not sustainable by this definition. They are linked to significant environmental, social, and health problems for people alive today and, in many cases, pose even greater threats to future generations.

While it is imperative to find ways to greatly expand energy services, especially to the two billion people who currently rely on traditional forms of energy as well as for generations to come, this expansion must be achieved in ways that are environmentally sound, as well as safe, affordable, convenient, reliable, and equitable.

This, in essence, is the challenge of energy-related policies for sustainable development.

It is an enormous challenge. Over the next 50 years, sustained economic growth will require energy services an order of magnitude larger than today, with most of the expansion in the parts of the developing world that are presently underserved. During this half century, protecting human health and the environment demands that energy systems generate much less pollution. 

Taking the climate change threat seriously would require that carbon dioxide emissions be reduced by perhaps two-thirds compared to current levels. Furthermore, humanitarian and moral concerns dictate that modern forms of energy be made available to the one third of the world’s people who are struggling today to improve their lives without this advantage.

Yet accomplishing energy systems supporting sustainable development in this century is in fact possible, according to comprehensive research on the subject by leading energy and development experts. It can be achieved through improvements in the efficiency with which modern energy carriers are produced and used, coupled with a greater reliance on modern forms of renewable energy and cleaner utilization of fossil fuels using technologies now available or in the development stage.

However, these approaches are not being implemented widely enough to meet the needs of billions of people living today, nor are they taking hold quickly enough to safeguard the prospects for future generations. Without significant changes in policies that guide energy developments, the window of opportunity that is now open may well close down, and prospects for future generations will be dimmed.

Policy makers are struggling to understand how to intervene most effectively to widen access, stimulate technological innovation, attract private investment, and refocus regulation to advance the economic, social, and environmental objectives of sustainability. Regrettably, there are no simple blueprints that will work in all situations.

Increasing Globalization

Trade barriers are transformed and world trade is growing. The global economy is becoming more integrated through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and the expansion of multinational companies. Multinational companies are playing an increasing role in fossil fuel production and distribution, gas and electric systems, and manufacturing of energy end-use technologies. As companies and markets become increasingly international, policy interventions will require coordinated action and harmonisation in order to be more effective.

Shifting Responsibilities for Governments. 

The fact that market forces extend beyond national borders has made it more difficult for governments to raise taxes and still stay competitive globally. Government activities are increasingly moving toward rulemaking and monitoring the application of rules to ensure that markets work efficiently and advance social benefits.

Restructuring and Liberalization of Energy Markets. 

All over the world, the allocation of materials and human and financial resources, as well as the selection of products and technologies, is increasingly done by private actors, and partially a function of market conditions. Many nations are corporatizing or privatizing formerly government-owned utilities and petroleum and natural gas companies, and introducing competition and new regulatory frameworks, in part to increase efficiency and attract private capital to the energy sector.

The Emerging Information Technology Revolution

The microelectronics revolution and its various ramifications are well known. The economic and structural transformations from the information age are likely to have far-reaching and difficult- to-predict structural consequences, including a more rapid decoupling of primary energy use from economic growth than we have witnessed to date. The Internet and related information technologies also offer tremendous potential in terms of transfer of technology, building capacity and raising awareness.

Greater Public Participation in Decision-Making

The freer flow of information and increasing globalization have been accompanied by a wave of democratization. Throughout the world large numbers of people without economic power are gaining political power. Local groups are becoming more involved in the decision-making processes and affecting public policy formulation. 

Women are becoming more active in the political process. The growing inequities among and within countries are increasing potential for social disruptions and conflicts.

All these trends are likely to provide a growing impetus to keep sustainable development high on the political agenda. They also form an important part of the context for implementation of energy for sustainable development.

Source: United Nations Development Program

Joshua D. Mosshart
Joshua Mosshart
Joshua Daniel Mosshart

Distributed Power Solutions Joshua D. Mosshart

Distributed power technologies provide a critical link between energy and social development in the rapidly urbanizing world where more energy supplies are needed.

Distributed power is a method to improve efficiency and reduce the environmental impact of the existing power system.

The access to reliable energy sources and economic development has been proven, and it has important validation for distributed power technologies. Significant barriers exist to the development of transmission and distribution projects.

The barriers exist in both developed and developing economies. Distributed power technologies provide a means to leap frog these barriers and increase electricity reliability and availability.

Distributed power is a solution for rapid urbinazation benefiting communities, local people and businesses around the world. Distributed power provides a important solution to emerging nations by building industries and improving livelyhood.

Distributed power technology benefits:

• Distributed Power can be installed quickly, often in a matter of days or weeks compared to years for central power stations. Fast deployment is extremely useful in cases where there a shortage of energy and supply must ramp up quickly. Rapid build time is also useful when restoring power when natural disasters hit or when there is unreliable power systems.
• Distributed power technologies require less capital to acquire, build and operate. In regions where capital is limited, it is increasingly important to provide critical infrastructure such as electricity without having to raise hundreds of millions of dollars in capital to finance infrastructure projects.
• Distributed power technologies enable energy providers to match the level of demand with the level of supply and to increase supplies incrementally as needed. Centralized power stations require large capital investment and are available in sizes that are often not appropriate for the required level of supply. Decentralized distributed power is the path forward in many parts of the world today.

Distributed power technologies provide a local level of control, operations and main- tenance that is not possible with central power stations. This enables system owners and operators to monitor and customize distributed power solutions to meet their specific needs.

Joshua Mosshart

Joshua D. Mosshart

Malia Ventures Inc.

Green Technology Joshua Mosshart

There is no commonly accepted or internationally agreed definition of green technology. The term can be broadly defined as technology that has the potential to significantly improve environmental performance relative to other technology. 

It is related to the term “environmentally sound technology”, which was adopted under the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development Agenda 21, although it is no longer widely used. 

Based on Agenda 21, environmentally sound technologies are geared to “protect the environment, are less polluting, use all resources in a more sustainable manner, recycle more of their wastes and products, and handle residual wastes in a more acceptable manner than the technologies for which they were substituted.”

Other related terms for green technology include: climate-smart, climate-friendly and low-carbon technology.

In terms of pollution, green technology includes both process and product technologies that generate low or no waste and increase resource- and energy-efficiency. They also cover "end-of-the-pipe" technologies for treating pollution. 

Green technology does not only mean individual technologies but also systems, including know-how, procedures, goods and services and equipment, as well as organizational and managerial procedures.

Green technology covers a broad area of production and consumption technologies. The adoption and use of green technologies involves the use of environmental technologies for monitoring and assessment, pollution prevention and control, and remediation and restoration. 

Monitoring and assessment technologies are used to measure and track the condition of the environment, including the release of natural or anthropogenic materials of a harmful nature.

Prevention technologies avoid the production of environmentally hazardous substances or alter human activities in ways that minimize damage to the environment; it encompasses product substitution or the redesign of an entire production process rather than using new pieces of equipment. 

Control technologies render hazardous substances harmless before they enter the environment. Remediation and restoration technologies embody methods designed to improve the condition of ecosystems, degraded through naturally induced or anthropogenic effects.

Strengths from adopting green technology

• Ability to meet strict product specifications in foreign markets: Manufacturers in developing countries typically need to meet stricter environmental requirements and specifications to export their products to industrialized countries than vice versa. The adoption of green technologies can help exporting companies to gain advantage and market share over competitors.
• Reduction of input costs: Green technology can improve production efficiency through the reduction of input costs, energy costs and operating and maintenance costs, which can improve a company’s competitive position.
• Environmental image: Adopting green technology can improve a company’s environmental reputation, which is crucial if other competitors and consumers are becoming more environmentally conscious.
• Ability to meet stricter environmental regulations in the future: Companies that invest in green technology are more likely to be better equipped and ready for stricter environmental regulations as well as product specifications that are expected to be imposed on them in the future.

Challenges to green technology adoption

Generally, green technology is more expensive than the technology it aims to replace, because it accounts for the environmental costs that are externalized in many conventional production processes. 

Because it is relatively new, the associated development and training costs can make it even more costly in comparison with established technologies. The perceived benefits are also dependant on other factors such as supporting infrastructure, technology readiness, human resources capabilities and geographic elements. Hence, what could be a feasible green technology in one country or region may not be in another.

Adoption and circulation of these technologies can be constrained by a number of other barriers. Some may be institutional, such as the lack of an appropriate regulatory framework; others may be technological, financial, political, cultural or legal in nature.

From a company’s perspective, the following are likely barriers to adopting green technologies:

• High implementing costs
• Lack of information
• No known alternative chemical or raw material inputs 
• No known alternative process technology 
• Uncertainty about performance impacts
• Lack of human resources and skills.

Overcoming these barriers is a complex process because it can involve a large number of parties, ranging from government, private sector, and NGOs to financial, research and educational institutions. 

Promoting green growth requires identifying and removing these barriers that hinder the large-scale dissemination of clean technology to developing countries, especially to those countries with special needs, such as least developed countries and small island developing states.

The table below highlights motivating and influencing factors for adopting new technologies from the viewpoint of various parties.

Fuel cells

Fuel cells convert the chemical energy contained in hydrogen to electricity and heat using an electrochemical process. Inside a fuel cell, hydrogen electrochemically merges with oxygen to create electricity, resulting in water and potentially useful heat as by-products. 

There are many types of fuel cells, though in general, they all share the same basic configuration, featuring two electrodes sandwiched around an electrolyte. The types of fuel cells are categorized by the electrolyte substance.

Power produced by a fuel cell depends on the fuel cell type, size, operating temperature and the gas supplied. Hydrogen is the most optimal fuel for use in fuel cells. However, other hydrogen-rich fuel sources, such as biogas from waste treatment and natural gas, which are rich in methane, can also be used as fuel. 

Fuel cells can be used for backup power, power for remote locations, distributed power generation and combined heat and power applications. To sustain electricity generation, though, the fuel needs to be supplied continuously; thus a reliable supply of gas or a bulk storage system is needed.

Because fuel cells do not use combustion, emissions are much lower, and conversion efficiency is higher than with conventional thermal power generation. A typical conventional combustion-based power plant has around 33–35 per cent efficiency, while fuel cell systems can generate electricity at efficiencies up to 60 per cent.

The two main barriers to the commercializing of fuel cells are cost and durability. Material and manufacturing costs for fuel cells are high compared to traditional combustion systems, and fuel cells have demonstrated the system reliability and durability to compete with existing technologies.

Energy storage

Energy can be used more efficiently through the addition of short- and long-term energy storage, both on and off the grid. Thermal and electrical energy storage systems enable more efficient power generation by balancing fluctuating energy supply and demand. 

Thermal energy storage can also be used to reduce electricity consumption by increasing the efficiency of heating and cooling systems, while an electrical storage system can supply excess electricity, which is generated during periods of low consumption, to meet peak power demand.

Depending on the technology, energy can be stored as electrical, chemical, thermal or mechanical energy. Not all technologies are suitable for every application, however, mainly due to power output and storage capacity limitations. 

Identifying a suitable storage technology depends on several factors, such as storage capacity, charging and discharging power, efficiency, storage period, storage cycle and cost.

“Grid energy storage” (also large-scale or utility-scale storage) refers to a grid-connected energy storage system. A high penetration of renewable energy sources will require major alterations to a power system’s operation. 

Electricity from renewable energy sources (specifically wind and solar) are intermittent, which can lead to system instability and a mismatch in supply and demand. Thus, energy storage is essential to increase the penetration of renewable energy power generation as well as for the overall energy efficiency in the power generation sector.

The commercial readiness of energy storage varies according to the technology and application. Pumped storage is the most widespread system in use on power networks, representing about 3 per cent of the global generating capacity. 

Other storage technologies include compressed air energy storage (CAES), flywheels, lead-acid batteries, sodium sulphur batteries and capacitor systems. 23 Battery storage methods are suitable for small-scale applications, such as battery-backup systems for solar panel homes.

Smart grids

Smart grid technology consists of multiple components and systems. A smart grid basically describes the existing grid enriched by new networks of sensing, communication and control technologies. These networks are linked by universal standards and protocols that are constantly added and updated. 

The grid becomes “smarter” through the deployment of communication and control devices and through the integration of complex optimizing software enabled by advances in information technology. In simpler terms, a smart grid is made up of a series of smart devices connected over a network to computers that use the data provided by the devices to optimize the system.

On the supply side, smart grids enable a high penetration of renewable energy sources through enhanced control of the fluctuations in the power supply. The supply of many renewable resources is intermittent, so utility services normally have a hard time integrating them into the system. 

What smart grid technology offers, is a system that can virtually go out and see what resources are available and dispatch them to the consumers. On the demand side, the deployment of a smart meter and smart appliances lets system operators as well as con- sumers know when demand for electricity is outstripping supply and thus curtails the use of electricity.

Smart grid technology is not yet commercially viable because the standards and protocols for the system integration are still under development. There are several smart grid pilot projects around the world. 

The biggest barrier to smart grid application may be the costs, as it will be expensive to implement smart grid technologies because old equipment and transmission infrastructure will need to be replaced and upgraded.

Source:UNEP

Joshua Mosshart

Technology Development & Transfer Joshua Mosshart

Technologies have been the driver of economic and social development worldwide, but not all countries have had the capacity to develop and maintain the technologies they require. Because technology is so important for achieving climate change stabilisation, the need for enhanced capabilities has made technology transfer a priority high on the international development agenda as well as in climate change negotiations.

There are a number of conceptual models that identify the stages involved in technology development and transfer. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) identified the following five main stages:

• Technology assessment,
• Technology agreement,
• Technology implementation,
• Technology evaluation and adjustment, and
• Technology replication.
• A more comprehensive model that reflects endogenous capacities (Davidson 2001) contains the following stages:
• Consideration of national development plans to identify the sustainable development objectives,
• Technology needs assessment based on the sustainable development objectives,
• Technology selection using endogenous capabilities and identification of gaps that
• can be filled with technology imports,
• Merging endogenous capabilities with technology imports to develop technology,
• Operating technology at designed performance,
• Product or equipment modification to suit local conditions, and
• Development of technology that can compete internationally.
• Technology development and technology transfer relate to existing and emerging technologies and include technology diffusion and technology cooperation with regard to equipment, know-how and software as well as their associated management systems. 

These transactions may occur through government-government, public-private sector or private-private sector partnerships. Technology transfer is not only about the supply of hardware across national or international frontiers, but also about the complex processes of sharing knowledge and adapting technology to meet local conditions, along with the associated management demands. 

The IPCC defines technology transfer as a broad set of processes covering the flows of know-how, experience and equipment for mitigating and adapting to climate change among different stakeholders such as Governments, private sector entities, financial institutions, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and research/educational institutions.

In the past, technology transfer was generally viewed as the transfer of machinery and equipment from the producer (usually in developed countries) to the user, (in developing countries) through trade, aid and licensing or foreign direct investment (FDI). However, more recently, it has been shown that such transactions involve technology payments and that technology is embedded in social and political institutions that affect technology absorption. 

Also, it is now evident that technology can only be absorbed by the recipient country if there is some level of domestic capacity. Thus some countries, especially in Asia and Latin America, have not only absorbed the technology but have created the capacity to operate and modify imported technology efficiently and, in some cases, even innovating and developing new technologies. 

Therefore, some developing countries have been able to compete in the marketplace as a result of technology learning and mastery. Nevertheless, many developing countries lack the human and institutional capacities and the necessary infrastructure for the effective transfer and absorption of innovative technologies.

In recent years, major changes have taken place that influence technology development. These include increased knowledge intensity, the emergence of innovation- based competition through market liberalisation, globalisation of trade and growing concern for the environment. Some developing countries have been able to cope with these changes and to become integrated into the global economy because they treated technology transfer as a process of technology learning, domestic capacity building and innovation. However, the majority of developing countries have not been able to achieve technological progress.

All climate change discussions and initiatives have stressed the need for cooperation between developed and developing countries for the promotion of technology transfer. In practise, different stakeholders, whether Governments, multilateral institutions, the private sector or NGOs, have different roles in technology transfer. While Governments generally create the “enabling environment” to promote investments and technology development and transfer, it is generally the other actors that are involved in the actual transfer.

International issues in technology development and technology transfer

Aspects to be addressed for the effective development and transfer of technologies include:

• Human resource development,
• Institutional development,
• Information development,
• Partnership and networking, and
• Collaborative research and development (R&D).
• Human resource and institutional development are the most important activities for Least Developed Countries (LDCs), while partnerships and networking along with collaborative R&D may be more crucial for other developing countries. 

Information development is important for all countries, as it is the cornerstone of technology transfer. The developed countries are expected to facilitate and support human resource capacity building in developing countries.

Human resource development

An adequately trained workforce and technical, business and managerial staff are crucial to adapting, operating and managing technology. The experience of some developing countries has shown that adequate domestic capacities for achieving economic success and sustaining export growth can transform lagging economies into modern dynamic economies. Training is a long-term activity and should be closely monitored for effectiveness through sustained efforts by all stakeholders.

Institutional development

Strategies for developing and strengthening institutions for domestic capacity building in technology development include a number of functions, which are further detailed below.

Technology and business assessments are activities that enable the technology recipient to make appropriate decisions on technology selection based on local resources and constraints along with regional and global conditions. These activities require cooperation with business and technology R&D centres and include:

• Technology sourcing and evaluation;
• Technology testing, demonstration and certification;
• Technology forecasting and tracking;
• Managing effective information systems;
• Technology advisory services;
• Support for a reward system including patenting; and
• Business forecasting.

Technology policy research involves conducting cutting-edge research related to environmentally sound technologies, as well as policy research to assist Governments in the formulation of appropriate legislation, which is crucial for technological progress. 

This element is important when modeling long-term demands that take into consideration the problems of climate change (Jacobsen). However, given the high rate of migration of scientists, engineers and technologists to developed countries, retention of adequate personnel is a major challenge facing developing countries. Incentive packages and mentorship programmes attractive to young and upcoming researchers can help.

Technology and business incubation centres are facilities that enhance the marketing of technologies. The absence of such centres for technology development and transfer in most developing countries leads to a waste of resources and frustration among stakeholders. 

The work of such an institution should consist of demand-driven activities linked to business opportunities and provide clients with such functions as:

• Evaluation of investment risks,
• Linkages to international technology and business centres,
• Linkages to local and external R&D centres,
• Technology demonstration and exposition,
• Technology investment and management advice,
• Technology forecasting needs,
• Technology upgrading, and
• Technical and financial support for near-market technologies.

Technology demonstration centres can overcome the problems, faced by developing countries, especially the LDCs, of demonstrating technology utilization potential and promoting overall technology awareness. Science and technology exhibitions, both stationary and mobile, and school and mass media programmes are necessary if the cultural aspects of technology transfer and development are to be addressed. Developed countries, where most of these demonstration facilities are located, can assist developing countries in this effort.

Information development

The role of information in technology transfer and development is crucial, and therefore capacities are needed to ensure access to the information required for adequate technological capability. There is much information in the public domain that is useful for technology transfer and development. 

However, the information needed should go beyond simple inventories of costs and environmental parameters, and should include specific technical data that will facilitate technology selection, development and use. Also, the scarcity of investment information impedes effective involvement of the private sector. 

Thus, in addition to adequate numbers of well-trained personnel in recipient countries, capacities are required for:

• Information assessment and screening,
• The development of information brokers to act as intermediaries,
• Maximal use of electronic systems, and
• The development of databases in developing countries with linkages to international databases.
• Technology partnerships and networking

Technology partnerships between firms in developed countries and those in developing countries have been very effective in technology development and transfer and market development, provided they are two-way relationships involving a long-term commitment with the objective of sharing knowledge, enhancing technological capabilities, fostering innovation and strengthening competitiveness. 

Interaction and mutual dependency, as well as risk and cost sharing among partners, are important. Networks consist of a group of institutions or associations with the aims of enhancing the capacity to conduct research and improving training and education through interaction. 

Partners can therefore form a network to improve access to new ideas, methods, and information sharing and materials exchange. Both technology partnerships and networking require a certain level of technical competence among partners.

There are many such partnerships and networks among corporations in developed countries, while the number involving firms in developing countries is limited but growing. This recent trend, which is common to some developing countries, especially in South and East Asia, show that these partnerships and networks can foster technological upgrading and improvement in product quality. 

Similar results have been observed for countries that have received significant Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). The success of these partnerships depends largely on how the local needs and priorities of the developing country are considered. 

Moreover, restrictions and conditions imposed by partners in developed countries can affect these partnerships. Though partnerships and networking are no panacea for capacity building, they can have several benefits including:

• Improvement of market access across a large number of industries,
• Contribution to the development of a competitive local industry and local expertise,
• Contribution to the mobilisation of resources and technological expertise to upgrade lagging infrastructure,
• Improvement of access to international markets, and
• Support to firms and R&D institutions for leveraging their activities and attracting new investments.
• Collaborative research and development

Survival in the global economy requires increased knowledge, innovation, management and technological capabilities. In addition, a multi-disciplinary approach is needed to cope with the knowledge-based activities prevailing in international technology transactions. 

These advances have made the type of support needed by technological R&D institutions so expensive that very few institutions can afford them. Furthermore, the knowledge needed not only is absent in developing countries but also may require innovative approaches that can only be achieved through systematic, well-planned R&D programmes.

Since R&D activities are now becoming very competitive and expensive in terms of both financial and human resources, collaboration is necessary for coping with this challenge. 

Moreover, collaboration between institutions of developing countries and developed countries can be the most effective option in frontier technologies. Such international cooperation provides opportunities for sharing resources and activities, as well as for making optimal use of facilities.

The dynamics of technological change imply that, in order to address climate change strategically, technology programmes should include current technologies and those at the cutting edge. 

Developing countries need to increase their capacities to assess, analyse and choose technologies based on their needs and development priorities, and to adapt them to specific local conditions. Some developing countries and countries with economies in transition can use their human and institutional capacities to focus on technology partnerships and networking.

International institutions and bilateral institutions in developed countries should mobilise some of their capacity to address the current environmental and sustainable development concerns of developing countries.

Source:UN Sustainable Development

Joshua Mosshart